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Coloured glass and the works that are fabricated from it

The north rose window of the Chartres Cathedral (Chartres, French republic), donated by Blanche of Castile. It represents the Virgin Mary equally Queen of Heaven, surrounded by Biblical kings and prophets. Beneath is St Anne, mother of the Virgin, with four righteous leaders. The window includes the artillery of France and Castile

The term stained glass refers either to coloured glass as a material or to works created from it. Throughout its thousand-year history, the term has been applied almost exclusively to the windows of churches and other significant religious buildings. Although traditionally fabricated in flat panels and used as windows, the creations of modern stained glass artists also include 3-dimensional structures and sculpture. Modern vernacular usage has often extended the term "stained glass" to include domestic lead light and objets d'art created from foil glasswork exemplified in the famous lamps of Louis Condolement Tiffany.

As a material stained glass is glass that has been coloured by adding metal salts during its industry, and usually then farther decorating it in diverse means. The coloured glass is crafted into stained glass windows in which pocket-size pieces of glass are arranged to form patterns or pictures, held together (traditionally) past strips of pb and supported by a rigid frame. Painted details and yellow stain are often used to enhance the design. The term stained glass is also applied to windows in enamelled drinking glass in which the colours have been painted onto the drinking glass and and then fused to the glass in a kiln; very often this technique is only practical to parts of a window.

Renaissance roundel, inserted into a patently glass window, using only blackness or dark-brown glass pigment, and silver stain in a range of yellows and aureate. The local bishop-saint Lambrecht of Maastricht stands in an all-encompassing landscape, 1510–20. The diameter is 8+ 3⁄four in (22 cm), and the piece was designed to exist placed low, close to the viewer, very possibly not in a church.

Stained glass, equally an art and a craft, requires the creative skill to conceive an advisable and workable design, and the engineering science skills to assemble the slice. A window must fit snugly into the infinite for which information technology is made, must resist current of air and pelting, and also, peculiarly in the larger windows, must support its ain weight. Many large windows take withstood the test of time and remained substantially intact since the Late Center Ages. In Western Europe, together with illuminated manuscripts, they constitute the major grade of medieval pictorial art to accept survived. In this context, the purpose of a stained glass window is not to let those inside a building to see the world exterior or even primarily to acknowledge calorie-free simply rather to control it. For this reason stained drinking glass windows accept been described as "illuminated wall decorations".

The design of a window may be abstract or figurative; may comprise narratives fatigued from the Bible, history, or literature; may represent saints or patrons, or use symbolic motifs, in particular armorial. Windows within a edifice may be thematic, for instance: within a church – episodes from the life of Christ; inside a parliament edifice – shields of the constituencies; inside a college hall – figures representing the arts and sciences; or within a domicile – flora, fauna, or landscape.

Glass product [edit]

During the late medieval menstruum, drinking glass factories were gear up where there was a ready supply of silica, the essential material for glass manufacture. Silica requires a very high temperature to melt, something not all glass factories were able to achieve. Such materials as potash, soda, and lead can be added to lower the melting temperature. Other substances, such as lime, are added to rebuild the weakened network and make the glass more stable. Glass is coloured past adding metallic oxide powders or finely divided metals while it is in a molten state.^[1] Copper oxides produce green or blue green, cobalt makes deep blue, and gilt produces vino red and violet glass. Much of modern red glass is produced using copper, which is less expensive than golden and gives a brighter, more vermilion shade of ruddy. Drinking glass coloured while in the clay pot in the furnace is known as pot metallic glass, every bit opposed to flashed glass.

Cylinder drinking glass or Muff [edit]

Using a blow-pipe, a "get together" (glob) of molten glass is taken from the pot heating in the furnace. The get together is formed to the correct shape and a bubble of air blown into it. Using metal tools, molds of woods that have been soaking in h2o, and gravity, the get together is manipulated to grade a long, cylindrical shape. Equally information technology cools, it is reheated and so that the manipulation tin can continue. During the procedure, the lesser of the cylinder is removed. Once brought to the desired size it is left to cool. One side of the cylinder is opened. Information technology is put into some other oven to quickly heat and flatten it, and then placed in an annealer to absurd at a controlled rate, making the material more stable. "Hand-blown" cylinder (besides called muff glass) and crown glass were the types used in ancient stained-glass windows. Stained glass windows were normally in churches and chapels as well equally many more well respected buildings.

Crown drinking glass [edit]

This hand-blown glass is created by blowing a bubble of air into a gather of molten glass then spinning it, either by hand or on a table that revolves rapidly like a potter's wheel. The centrifugal strength causes the molten chimera to open upward and flatten. It tin can then be cutting into small sheets. Glass formed this way tin can be either coloured and used for stained-drinking glass windows, or uncoloured as seen in small paned windows in 16th- and 17th-century houses. Concentric, curving waves are characteristic of the process. The heart of each piece of glass, known equally the "bull'south-eye", is subject to less acceleration during spinning, so it remains thicker than the rest of the sheet. It also has the pontil marking, a distinctive lump of drinking glass left by the "pontil" rod, which holds the glass as it is spun out. This lumpy, refractive quality means the bulls-eyes are less transparent, merely they accept notwithstanding been used for windows, both domestic and ecclesiastical. Crown glass is all the same made today, but not on a big scale.

Rolled glass [edit]

Rolled drinking glass (sometimes called "table glass") is produced by pouring molten glass onto a metal or graphite tabular array and immediately rolling it into a canvas using a big metal cylinder, similar to rolling out a pie chaff. The rolling can be done by hand or past machine. Glass can exist "double rolled", which ways information technology is passed through two cylinders at once (similar to the clothes wringers on older washing machines) to yield glass of a specified thickness (typically about 1/viii" or 3mm). The drinking glass is then annealed. Rolled glass was first commercially produced around the mid-1830s and is widely used today. It is often chosen cathedral glass, but this has zippo to do with medieval cathedrals, where the glass used was hand-blown.

Flashed drinking glass [edit]

Architectural drinking glass must be at least one / 8 of an inch (three mm) thick to survive the push button and pull of typical current of air loads. Yet, in the cosmos of cerise glass, the colouring ingredients must be of a sure concentration, or the colour will not develop. This results in a color so intense that at the thickness of ane / eight inch (3 mm), the red drinking glass transmits little light and appears black. The method employed is to laminate a sparse layer of red glass to a thicker body of glass that is articulate or lightly tinted, forming "flashed glass".

A lightly coloured molten gather is dipped into a pot of molten red drinking glass, which is then diddled into a sheet of laminated glass using either the cylinder (muff) or the crown technique described in a higher place. Once this method was found for making scarlet glass, other colours were made this way as well. A great advantage is that the double-layered drinking glass tin can be engraved or abraded to reveal the clear or tinted glass beneath. The method allows rich detailing and patterns to be achieved without needing to add more atomic number 82-lines, giving artists greater freedom in their designs. A number of artists have embraced the possibilities flashed glass gives them. For instance, 16th-century heraldic windows relied heavily on a variety of flashed colours for their intricate crests and creatures. In the medieval menstruum the glass was abraded; later, hydrofluoric acrid was used to remove the flash in a chemic reaction (a very dangerous technique), and in the 19th century sandblasting started to exist used for this purpose.

Mod product of traditional glass [edit]

There are a number of glass factories, notably in Deutschland, the United states, England, France, Poland and Russian federation, which produce high-quality glass, both manus-blown (cylinder, muff, crown) and rolled (cathedral and opalescent). Modern stained-glass artists have a number of resource to apply and the work of centuries of other artists from which to learn equally they proceed the tradition in new ways. In the tardily 19th and 20th centuries there have been many innovations in techniques and in the types of glass used. Many new types of glass have been developed for use in stained drinking glass windows, in detail Tiffany drinking glass and Dalle de verre.

Colours [edit]

Part of German panel of 1444 with the Visitation; pot metal of various colours, including white glass, black vitreous paint, xanthous silverish stain, and the "olive-dark-green" parts are enamel. The plant patterns in the cerise sky are formed past scratching away black paint from the crimson glass before firing. A restored panel with new lead cames.

"Pot metal" and flashed glass [edit]

The primary method of including colour in stained glass is to use glass, originally colourless, that has been given colouring by mixing with metallic oxides in its melted state (in a crucible or "pot"), producing glass sheets that are coloured all the manner through; these are known as "pot metal" glass.^[2] A 2d method, sometimes used in some areas of windows, is flashed glass, a thin coating of coloured glass fused to colourless glass (or coloured glass, to produce a different color). In medieval glass flashing was especially used for reds, equally glass made with gold compounds was very expensive and tended to be too deep in colour to use at full thickness.^[3]

Drinking glass pigment [edit]

Another grouping of techniques give additional colouring, including lines and shading, by treating the surfaces of the coloured sheets, and frequently fixing these furnishings by a light firing in a furnace or kiln. These methods may exist used over wide areas, especially with silver stain, which gave better yellows than other methods in the Centre Ages. Alternatively they may be used for painting linear furnishings, or polychrome areas of particular. The most mutual method of adding the blackness linear painting necessary to define stained glass images is the use of what is variously called "glass pigment", "vitreous paint", or "grisaille pigment". This was applied as a mixture of powdered glass, iron or rust filings to give a black colour, clay, and oil, vinegar or water for a brushable texture, with a folder such as glue arabic. This was painted on the pieces of coloured drinking glass, so fired to burn down abroad the ingredients giving texture, leaving a layer of the glass and colouring, fused to the main glass piece.^[4]

German drinking glass, Nuremberg, afterwards a drawing by Sebald Beham, c. 1525. Silver stain produces a range of yellows and golden, and painted on the reverse of the blue heaven, gives the night green of the cross.^[5]

Silvery stain [edit]

"Silverish stain", introduced soon subsequently 1300, produced a broad range of yellowish to orange colours; this is the "stain" in the term "stained glass". Silver compounds (notably silver nitrate)^[6] are mixed with bounden substances, applied to the surface of glass, then fired in a furnace or kiln.^[7] They can produce a range of colours from orange-red to yellow. Used on blue drinking glass they produce greens. The way the drinking glass is heated and cooled can significantly impact the colours produced by these compounds. The chemistry involved is complex and non well understood. The chemicals actually penetrate the glass they are added to a little way, and the technique therefore gives extremely stable results. By the 15th century it had go cheaper than using pot metallic glass and was often used with glass paint every bit the merely colour on transparent drinking glass.^[8] Silverish stain was applied to the opposite face of the glass to silver paint, as the two techniques did not work well one on acme of the other. The stain was usually on the exterior confront, where it appears to have given the glass some protection against weathering, although this can also be truthful for paint. They were also probably fired separately, the stain needing a lower heat than the paint.^[ix]

"Sanguine" or "Cousin'due south rose" [edit]

"Sanguine", "carnation", "Rouge Jean Cousin" or "Cousin's rose", after its supposed inventor,^[10] is an iron-based fired paint producing crimson colours, mainly used to highlight small-scale areas, often on flesh. It was introduced around 1500.^[11] Copper stain, like to silver stain but using copper compounds, also produced reds, and was mainly used in the 18th and 19th centuries.^[12]

Cold painting [edit]

"Cold paint" is various types of pigment that were applied without firing. Contrary to the optimistic claims of the twelfth century writer Theophilus Presbyter, common cold paint is not very durable, and very little medieval paint has survived.^[12]

Scratching techniques [edit]

Likewise as painting, scratched sgraffito techniques were often used. This involved painting a colour over pot metal glass of another colour, and then before firing selectively scratching the glass paint abroad to make the design, or the lettering of an inscription. This was the near common method of making inscriptions in early medieval drinking glass, giving white or light letters on a blackness background, with afterwards inscriptions more often using black painted letters on a transparent drinking glass background.^[13]

"Pot drinking glass" colours [edit]

These are the colours in which the glass itself is made, as opposed to colours applied to the drinking glass.

Transparent glass [edit]

Ordinary soda-lime glass appears colourless to the naked eye when it is thin, although iron oxide impurities produce a green tint which becomes axiomatic in thick pieces or with the aid of scientific instruments. A number of additives are used to reduce the dark-green tint, peculiarly if the glass is to be used for obviously window glass, rather than stained glass windows. These additives include manganese dioxide which produces sodium permanganate, and may result in a slightly mauve tint, characteristic of the drinking glass in older houses in New England. Selenium has been used for the same purpose.^[14]

Green glass [edit]

While very pale green is the typical colour of transparent glass, deeper greens tin be achieved by the add-on of Iron(II) oxide which results in a bluish-green glass. Together with chromium it gives drinking glass of a richer greenish colour, typical of the glass used to brand vino bottles. The addition of chromium yields nighttime green drinking glass, suitable for flashed glass.^[15] Together with tin oxide^{[ clarification needed ]} and arsenic information technology yields emerald green glass.

Blue glass [edit]

In medieval times, blue drinking glass was fabricated by adding cobalt blue, which at a concentration of 0.025% to 0.1% in soda-lime glass achieves the brilliant blue characteristic of Chartres Cathedral.
The add-on of sulphur to boron-rich borosilicate glasses imparts a blue colour.
The improver of copper oxide at 2–iii% produces a turquoise colour.
The addition of nickel, at different concentrations, produces blueish, violet, or black glass.^[16]

Red glass [edit]

Metallic golden, in very depression concentrations (around 0.001%), produces a rich ruby-red-coloured drinking glass ("cerise gold"); in even lower concentrations it produces a less intense ruby-red, often marketed as "cranberry glass". The colour is acquired by the size and dispersion of gilt particles. Carmine gold glass is normally made of lead glass with tin added.
Pure metallic copper produces a very dark reddish, opaque glass. Glass created in this manner is by and large "flashed" (laminated glass). It was used extensively in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and exploited for the decorative effects that could exist accomplished past sanding and engraving.
Selenium is an important agent to make pinkish and red glass. When used together with cadmium sulphide, it yields a brilliant red colour known equally "Selenium Cerise".^[14]

Yellow glass [edit]

This was very often accomplished by "silver stain" practical externally to the sheets of glass (see above).
The addition of sulphur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulphides and produce amber drinking glass ranging from yellow to most black. With calcium it yields a deep yellowish colour.^[17]
Adding titanium produces yellowish-brown glass. Titanium is rarely used on its own and is more often employed to intensify and brighten other additives.
Cadmium together with sulphur results in deep xanthous color, oftentimes used in glazes. However, cadmium is toxic.
Uranium (0.i% to 2%) can be added to give glass a fluorescent yellow or green colour.^[18] Uranium drinking glass is typically not radioactive enough to exist dangerous, but if basis into a powder, such as by polishing with sandpaper, and inhaled, information technology can exist carcinogenic. When used with lead glass with a very loftier proportion of lead, information technology produces a deep crimson colour.

Purple drinking glass [edit]

The addition of manganese gives an amethyst colour. Manganese is one of the oldest glass additives, and majestic manganese glass has been used since early Egyptian history.
Nickel, depending on the concentration, produces blueish, or violet, or even black glass.^[16] Lead crystal with added nickel acquires a purplish color.

White glass [edit]

Tin dioxide with antimony and arsenic oxides produce an opaque white glass, get-go used in Venice to produce an faux porcelain. White drinking glass was used extensively by Louis Comfort Tiffany to create a range of opalescent, mottled and streaky glasses.

13th-century window from Chartres showing extensive use of the ubiquitous cobalt blue with green and imperial-brown glass, details of amber and borders of flashed red glass.
A 19th-century window illustrates the range of colours common in both Medieval and Gothic Revival drinking glass, Lucien Begule, Lyon (1896)
A 16th-century window by Arnold of Nijmegen showing the combination of painted glass and intense colour common in Renaissance windows
A late 20th-century window showing a graded range of colours. Ronald Whiting, Chapel Studios. Tattershall Castle, Uk
A window past Tiffany illustrating the evolution and utilize of multi-coloured flashed, opalised and streaky spectacles at the end of the 19th century

Creating stained-glass windows [edit]

Swiss armourial glass of the Arms of Unterwalden, 1564, with typical painted details, extensive silver stain, Cousin's rose on the face, and flashed ruddy glass with abraded white motif

Pattern [edit]

The first phase in the product of a window is to make, or acquire from the builder or owners of the building, an authentic template of the window opening that the glass is to fit.

The subject matter of the window is determined to suit the location, a item theme, or the wishes of the patron. A small blueprint called a Vidimus (from Latin "we take seen") is prepared which can be shown to the patron. A scaled model maquette may besides be provided. The designer must take into account the design, the construction of the window, the nature and size of the drinking glass bachelor and his or her own preferred technique.

A traditional narrative window has panels which chronicle a story. A figurative window could have rows of saints or dignitaries. Scriptural texts or mottoes are sometimes included and perhaps the names of the patrons or the person to whose memory the window is dedicated. In a window of a traditional type, it is usually left to the discretion of the designer to make full the surrounding areas with borders, floral motifs and canopies.

A total-sized cartoon is drawn for every "light" (opening) of the window. A small church window might typically accept two lights, with some simple tracery lights above. A big window might accept four or v lights. The east or west window of a large cathedral might accept 7 lights in three tiers, with elaborate tracery. In medieval times the cartoon was drawn directly on the surface of a whitewashed tabular array, which was and then used every bit a blueprint for cutting, painting and assembling the window. The drawing is then divided into a patchwork, providing a template for each minor glass slice. The verbal position of the atomic number 82 which holds the drinking glass in place is likewise noted, as it is function of the calculated visual effect.

Selecting and painting the drinking glass [edit]

Each slice of glass is selected for the desired color and cut to match a section of the template. An exact fit is ensured by "grozing" the edges with a tool which tin nibble off small pieces. Details of faces, pilus and easily can be painted onto the inner surface of the drinking glass using a special drinking glass pigment which contains finely ground lead or copper filings, basis drinking glass, gum arabic and a medium such as wine, vinegar or (traditionally) urine. The art of painting details became increasingly elaborate and reached its height in the early 20th century.

From 1300 onwards, artists started using "silver stain" which was made with silver nitrate. It gave a yellow effect ranging from pale lemon to deep orange. It was usually painted onto the outside of a slice of glass, then fired to make it permanent. This yellow was especially useful for enhancing borders, canopies and haloes, and turning blueish drinking glass into green glass. By about 1450, a stain known as "Cousin'southward rose" was used to enhance mankind tones.

In the 16th century, a range of drinking glass stains were introduced, most of them coloured by ground glass particles. They were a course of enamelled glass. Painting on glass with these stains was initially used for small heraldic designs and other details. By the 17th century a fashion of stained drinking glass had evolved that was no longer dependent upon the skilful cutting of coloured drinking glass into sections. Scenes were painted onto glass panels of foursquare format, like tiles. The colours were then annealed to the glass earlier the pieces were assembled.

A method used for embellishment and gilding is the ornamentation of one side of each of 2 pieces of thin glass, which are so placed back to back within the lead came. This allows for the apply of techniques such as Angel gilding and Eglomise to produce an issue visible from both sides but not exposing the decorated surface to the atmosphere or mechanical harm.

Assembly and mounting [edit]

In one case the glass is cut and painted, the pieces are assembled by slotting them into H-sectioned pb cames. All the joints are then soldered together and the drinking glass pieces are prevented from rattling and the window made weatherproof by forcing a soft oily cement or mastic between the drinking glass and the cames. In modern windows, copper foil is now sometimes used instead of lead.^[19] For further technical details, run across Came glasswork.

Traditionally, when a window was inserted into the window space, fe rods were put across it at various points to back up its weight. The window was tied to these rods with copper wire. Some very large early Gothic windows are divided into sections by heavy metal frames chosen ferramenta. This method of support was also favoured for big, normally painted, windows of the Bizarre catamenia.

Technical details
Thomas Becket window from Canterbury showing the pot metal and painted glass, lead H-sectioned cames, mod steel rods and copper wire attachments
Detail from a 19th or 20th-century window in Eyneburg, Belgium, showing detailed polychrome painting of face.

History [edit]

Origins [edit]

Coloured drinking glass has been produced since ancient times. Both the Egyptians and the Romans excelled at the manufacture of small-scale colored glass objects. Phoenicia was of import in glass industry with its chief centres Sidon, Tyre and Antioch. The British Museum holds two of the finest Roman pieces, the Lycurgus Cup, which is a murky mustard color but glows purple-red to transmitted light, and the cameo drinking glass Portland vase which is midnight blue, with a carved white overlay.

In early on Christian churches of the fourth and 5th centuries, there are many remaining windows which are filled with ornate patterns of thinly-sliced alabaster set into wooden frames, giving a stained-glass similar effect.

Evidence of stained-glass windows in churches and monasteries in United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland tin exist found as early every bit the 7th century. The primeval known reference dates from 675 Advertizing when Benedict Biscop imported workmen from France to glaze the windows of the monastery of St Peter which he was building at Monkwearmouth. Hundreds of pieces of coloured glass and lead, dating dorsum to the late 7th century, take been discovered here and at Jarrow.^[xx]

In the Centre East, the glass industry of Syria continued during the Islamic menstruum with major centres of manufacture at Raqqa, Aleppo and Damascus and the most important products being highly transparent colourless glass and gilded drinking glass, rather than coloured glass.

A perfume flask from 100 BC to 200 Ad

In Southwest Asia [edit]

The creation of stained glass in Western asia began in ancient times. One of the region's earliest surviving formulations for the production of colored glass comes from the Assyrian metropolis of Nineveh, dating to the seventh century BC. The Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna, attributed to the 8th century alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān, discusses the production of colored drinking glass in ancient Babylon and Arab republic of egypt. The Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna also describes how to create colored glass and artificial gemstones made from high-quality stained glass.^[21] The tradition of stained glass manufacture has continued, with mosques, palaces, and public spaces being decorated with stained drinking glass throughout the Islamic earth. The stained glass of Islam is mostly not-pictorial and of purely geometric blueprint, but may contain both floral motifs and text.

Extensive stained spectacles of Nasir-ol-Molk Mosque in Shiraz, Islamic republic of iran and the light passing through them
Stained glass in Dowlat Abad Garden at Yazd, Iran
From a mosque in Jerusalem, this window contains highly detailed text.

Medieval glass in Europe [edit]

Stained glass, as an art class, reached its height in the Middle Ages when information technology became a major pictorial form used to illustrate the narratives of the Bible to a largely illiterate populace.

In the Romanesque and Early Gothic menstruation, from about 950 to 1240, the untraceried windows demanded big expanses of glass which of necessity were supported by robust iron frames, such as may be seen at Chartres Cathedral and at the eastern end of Canterbury Cathedral. As Gothic architecture adult into a more ornate form, windows grew larger, affording greater illumination to the interiors, but were divided into sections past vertical shafts and tracery of rock. This elaboration of grade reached its height of complication in the Flamboyant style in Europe, and windows grew still larger with the development of the Perpendicular manner in England and Rayonnant style in France.

Integrated with the lofty verticals of Gothic cathedrals and parish churches, glass designs became more daring. The circular form, or rose window, developed in France from relatively simple windows with openings pierced through slabs of thin stone to wheel windows, equally exemplified by the due west front of Chartres Cathedral, and ultimately to designs of enormous complexity, the tracery being drafted from hundreds of unlike points, such as those at Sainte-Chapelle, Paris and the "Bishop's Eye" at Lincoln Cathedral.

While stained glass was widely manufactured, Chartres was the greatest heart of stained drinking glass manufacture, producing glass of unrivalled quality.^[22]

Medieval glass in French republic
The Southward Transept windows from Chartres Cathedral

Medieval glass in Federal republic of germany and Austria
Rex David from Augsburg Cathedral, early 12th century. One of the oldest examples in situ.
Crucifixion with Ss Catherine, George and Margaret, Leechkirche, Graz, Austria
The Crucifixion and Virgin and Child in Majesty, Cologne Cathedral, (1340)

Medieval drinking glass in England
Detail of a Tree of Jesse from York Minster (c. 1170), the oldest stained-drinking glass window in England.
The Concluding Judgement, St Mary's Church, Fairford, (1500–17) past Barnard Blossom^[23]

Medieval glass in Spain

Renaissance, Reformation and Classical windows [edit]

Probably the earliest scheme of stained drinking glass windows that was created during the Renaissance was that for Florence Cathedral, devised by Lorenzo Ghiberti.^[24] The scheme includes three ocular windows for the dome and three for the facade which were designed from 1405 to 1445 by several of the most renowned artists of this menstruum: Ghiberti, Donatello, Uccello and Andrea del Castagno. Each major ocular window contains a single picture drawn from the Life of Christ or the Life of the Virgin Mary, surrounded past a wide floral border, with two smaller facade windows by Ghiberti showing the martyred deacons, St Stephen and St Lawrence. One of the cupola windows has since been lost, and that past Donatello has lost nigh all of its painted details.^[24]

In Europe, stained glass continued to exist produced; the style evolved from the Gothic to the Classical, which is well represented in Germany, Belgium and holland, despite the ascension of Protestantism. In France, much glass of this period was produced at the Limoges mill, and in Italy at Murano, where stained glass and faceted pb crystal are oft coupled together in the same window. The French Revolution brought well-nigh the neglect or destruction of many windows in France.

At the Reformation in England, large numbers of medieval and Renaissance windows were smashed and replaced with plain glass. The Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII and the injunctions of Thomas Cromwell against "driveling images" (the object of veneration) resulted in the loss of thousands of windows. Few remain undamaged; of these the windows in the private chapel at Hengrave Hall in Suffolk are among the finest. With the latter wave of destruction the traditional methods of working with stained glass died, and were non rediscovered in England until the early 19th century. See Stained glass – British glass, 1811–1918 for more details.

In the Netherlands a rare scheme of glass has remained intact at Grote Sint-Jan Church, Gouda. The windows, some of which are xviii metres (59 feet) high, date from 1555 to the early 1600s; the primeval is the piece of work of Dirck Crabeth and his brother Wouter. Many of the original cartoons nonetheless be.^[25]

The Triumph of Freedom of Conscience, Sint Janskerk, maker Adriaen Gerritszoon de Vrije (Gouda); blueprint Joachim Wtewael (Utrecht) (1595–1600)
Domestic window by Dirck Crabeth for the house of Adriaen Dircxzoon van Crimpen of Leiden. (1543) The windows evidence scenes from the lives of the Prophet Samuel and the Apostle Paul. Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris.^[25]
Glass painting depicting Mordnacht (murder night) on 23/24 Feb 1350 and heraldry of the start Meisen guild's Zunfthaus, Zürich. (c. 1650)
Auch Cathedral (France), Renaissance stained drinking glass by Arnaud de Moles (detail), 1507–1513).

Revival in Britain [edit]

The Catholic revival in England, gaining force in the early on 19th century with its renewed interest in the medieval church, brought a revival of church building building in the Gothic style, claimed by John Ruskin to be "the truthful Catholic style". The architectural movement was led by Augustus Welby Pugin. Many new churches were planted in big towns and many old churches were restored. This brought about a great demand for the revival of the art of stained glass window making.

Among the earliest 19th-century English language manufacturers and designers were William Warrington and John Hardman of Birmingham, whose nephew, John Hardman Powell, had a commercial eye and exhibited works at the Philadelphia Exhibition of 1876, influencing stained drinking glass in the Usa. Other manufacturers included William Wailes, Ward and Hughes, Clayton and Bong, Heaton, Butler and Bayne and Charles Eamer Kempe. A Scottish designer, Daniel Cottier, opened firms in Australia and the U.s..

I of England'southward largest windows, the east window of Lincoln Cathedral, Ward and Nixon (1855), is a formal arrangement of small narrative scenes in roundels
William Wailes. This window has the bright pastel color, wealth of inventive ornament, and stereotypical gestures of windows by this house. St Mary'due south, Chilham
South alley east window of St. Mary Redcliffe Bristol by Clayton and Bell, 1861.

Revival in France [edit]

In France there was a greater continuity of stained glass production than in England. In the early 19th century most stained glass was fabricated of large panes that were extensively painted and fired, the designs often being copied directly from oil paintings by famous artists. In 1824 the Sèvres porcelain manufactory began producing stained glass to supply the increasing need. In France many churches and cathedrals suffered despoliation during the French Revolution. During the 19th century a great number of churches were restored past Viollet-le-Duc. Many of France's finest aboriginal windows were restored at that time. From 1839 onwards much stained glass was produced that very closely imitated medieval glass, both in the artwork and in the nature of the glass itself. The pioneers were Henri Gèrente and André Lusson.^[26] Other glass was designed in a more Classical mode, and characterised by the brilliant cerulean colour of the blue backgrounds (as against the purple-blue of the drinking glass of Chartres) and the use of pink and mauve drinking glass.

Particular of a "Tree of Jesse" window in Reims Cathedral designed in the 13th-century style by L. Steiheil and painted by Coffetier for Viollet-le-Duc, (1861)
St Louis administering Justice by Lobin in the painterly way. (19th century) Church of St Medard, Thouars.

Revival [edit]

During the mid- to belatedly 19th century, many of Frg's ancient buildings were restored, and some, such as Cologne Cathedral, were completed in the medieval style. There was a great need for stained glass. The designs for many windows were based directly on the work of famous engravers such equally Albrecht Dürer. Original designs ofttimes imitate this way. Much 19th-century German glass has large sections of painted detail rather than outlines and details dependent on the lead. The Regal Bavarian Glass Painting Studio was founded by Ludwig I in 1827.^[26] A major firm was Mayer of Munich, which commenced glass production in 1860, and is yet operating every bit Franz Mayer of Munich, Inc.. High german stained glass found a marketplace across Europe, in America and Commonwealth of australia. Stained drinking glass studios were besides founded in Italian republic and Belgium at this time.^[26]

In the Austrian Empire and later Republic of austria-Hungary, one of the leading stained glass artists was Carl Geyling, who founded his studio in 1841. His son would continue the tradition every bit Carl Geyling's Erben, which still exists today. Carl Geyling's Erben completed numerous stained drinking glass windows for major churches in Vienna and elsewhere, and received an Imperial and Royal Warrant of Appointment from emperor Franz Joseph I of Republic of austria.

Innovations in Britain and Europe [edit]

Among the nigh innovative English designers were the Pre-Raphaelites, William Morris (1834–1898) and Edward Burne-Jones (1833–1898), whose work heralds the influential Arts and Crafts Motility, which regenerated stained drinking glass throughout the English language-speaking world. Amid its virtually important exponents in England was Christopher Whall (1849-1924), author of the archetype arts and crafts manual 'Stained Glass Work' (published London and New York, 1905), who advocated the directly involvement of designers in the making of their windows. His masterpiece is the serial of windows (1898-1910) in the Lady Chapel at Gloucester Cathedral. Whall taught at London's Royal Higher of Art and Fundamental Schoolhouse of Arts and Crafts: his many pupils and followers included Karl Parsons, Mary Lowndes, Henry Payne, Caroline Townshend, Veronica Whall (his daughter) and Paul Woodroffe.^[27] The Scottish artist Douglas Strachan (1875-1950), who was much influenced past Whall'due south example, adult the Arts & Crafts idiom in an expressionist manner, in which powerful imagery and meticulous technique are masterfully combined. In Republic of ireland, a generation of immature artists taught by Whall'due south pupil Alfred Child at Dublin's Metropolitan School of Art created a distinctive national school of stained drinking glass: its leading representatives were Wilhelmina Geddes, Michael Healy and Harry Clarke.

Fine art Nouveau or Belle Epoque stained drinking glass pattern flourished in France, and Eastern Europe, where it can be identified by the utilize of curving, sinuous lines in the atomic number 82, and swirling motifs. In France it is seen in the work of Francis Chigot of Limoges. In Britain it appears in the refined and formal leadlight designs of Charles Rennie Mackintosh.

David's charge to Solomon shows the strongly linear design and employ of flashed glass for which Burne-Jones' designs are famous. Trinity Church building, Boston, United states, (1882)
God the Creator by Stanisław Wyspiański, this window has no glass painting, but relies entirely on leadlines and adept placement of color and tone. Franciscan Church building, Kraków (c. 1900)
Art Nouveau by Jacques Grüber, the glass harmonising with the curving architectural forms that surround it, Musée de l'École de Nancy (1904).

Innovations in the United States [edit]

J&R Lamb Studios, established in 1857 in New York Urban center, was the outset major decorative arts studio in the Us and for many years a major producer of ecclesiastical stained glass.

Notable American practitioners include John La Farge (1835–1910), who invented opalescent glass and for which he received a U.Due south. patent on 24 Feb 1880, and Louis Condolement Tiffany (1848–1933), who received several patents for variations of the same opalescent procedure in November of the same yr and he used the copper foil method every bit an alternative to lead in some windows, lamps and other decorations. Sanford Bray of Boston patented the use of copper foil in stained glass in 1886,^[28] However, a reaction confronting the aesthetics and technique of opalescent windows - led initially by architects such as Ralph Adams Cram - led to a rediscovery of traditional stained drinking glass in the early 1900s. Charles J. Connick (1875-1945), who founded his Boston studio in 1913, was profoundly influenced by his study of medieval stained glass in Europe and by the Arts & Crafts philosophy of Englishman Christopher Whall. Connick created hundreds of windows throughout the United states of america, including major glazing schemes at Princeton Academy Chapel (1927-9) and at Pittsburgh'southward Heinz Memorial Chapel (1937-8).^[27] Other American creative person-makers who consort a medieval-inspired idiom included Nicola D'Ascenzo of Philadelphia, Wilbur Burnham and Reynolds, Francis & Rohnstock of Boston and Henry Wynd Young and J. Gordon Guthrie of New York.

John La Farge, The Angel of Help, North Easton, MA shows the use of tiny panes contrasting with big areas of opalescent glass. Window restored by Victor Rothman Stained Glass, Yonkers NY
Religion Enthroned, J&R Lamb Studios, designer Frederick Stymetz Lamb, c. 1900. Brooklyn Museum. Symmetrical design, "Aesthetic Style", a limited palette and extensive utilise of mottled glass.
The Holy Metropolis by Louis Comfort Tiffany (1905). This 58-panel window has brilliant red, orange, and yellow etched glass for the sunrise, with textured glass used to create the effect of moving h2o.

20th and 21st centuries [edit]

Many 19th-century firms failed early in the 20th century as the Gothic movement was superseded by newer styles. At the same time there were also some interesting developments where stained glass artists took studios in shared facilities. Examples include the Glass House in London gear up by Mary Lowndes and Alfred J. Drury and An Túr Gloine in Dublin, which was run past Sarah Purser and included artists such as Harry Clarke.

A revival occurred in the eye of the century because of a desire to restore thousands of church windows throughout Europe destroyed as a consequence of Earth War Two bombing. German language artists led the way. Much work of the period is mundane and often was non made by its designers, but industrially produced.

Other artists sought to transform an aboriginal fine art form into a gimmicky one, sometimes using traditional techniques while exploiting the medium of drinking glass in innovative ways and in combination with unlike materials. The utilise of slab glass, a technique known every bit Dalle de Verre, where the glass is set in physical or epoxy resin, was a 20th-century innovation credited to Jean Gaudin and brought to the Britain by Pierre Fourmaintraux. One of the most prolific glass artists using this technique was the Dominican Friar Dom Charles Norris OSB of Buckfast Abbey.

Gemmail, a technique adult past the French artist Jean Crotti in 1936 and perfected in the 1950s, is a type of stained drinking glass where adjacent pieces of glass are overlapped without using lead cames to bring together the pieces, allowing for greater diversity and subtlety of color.^[29] ^[xxx] Many famous works by late 19th- and early 20th-century painters, notably Picasso, have been reproduced in gemmail.^[31] A major exponent of this technique is the German creative person Walter Womacka.

Among the early well-known 20th-century artists who experimented with stained glass as an Abstract art form were Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian. In the 1960s and 1970s the Expressionist painter Marc Chagall produced designs for many stained glass windows that are intensely coloured and crammed with symbolic details. Important 20th-century stained glass artists include John Hayward, Douglas Strachan, Ervin Bossanyi, Louis Davis, Wilhelmina Geddes, Karl Parsons, John Piper, Patrick Reyntiens, Johannes Schreiter, Brian Clarke, Paul Woodroffe, Jean René Bazaine at Saint Séverin, Sergio de Castro at Couvrechef- La Folie (Caen), Hamburg-Dulsberg and Romont (Switzerland), and the Loire Studio of Gabriel Loire at Chartres. The due west windows of England'south Manchester Cathedral, past Tony Hollaway, are some of the most notable examples of symbolic piece of work.

In Germany, stained glass development continued with the inter-war work of Johan Thorn Prikker and Josef Albers, and the postal service-state of war achievements of Joachim Klos, Johannes Schreiter and Ludwig Shaffrath. This group of artists, who advanced the medium through the abandonment of figurative designs and painting on glass in favour of a mix of biomorphic and rigorously geometric abstraction, and the calligraphic non-functional utilize of leads,^[32] are described as having produced "the commencement authentic school of stained glass since the Middle Ages".^[33] The works of Ludwig Schaffrath demonstrate the tardily 20th-century trends in the apply of stained glass for architectural purposes, filling entire walls with coloured and textured glass. In the 1970s young British stained-glass artists such as Brian Clarke were influenced by the large scale and abstraction in German twentieth-century drinking glass.^[32]

In the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, the professional arrangement for stained glass artists has been the British Club of Master Glass Painters, founded in 1921. Since 1924 the BSMGP has published an annual journal, The Journal of Stained Glass. Information technology continues to be United kingdom's only organisation devoted exclusively to the fine art and arts and crafts of stained glass. From the outset, its primary objectives accept been to promote and encourage high standards in stained glass painting and staining, to human activity every bit a locus for the exchange of information and ideas within the stained drinking glass craft and to preserve the invaluable stained glass heritage of Britain. See www.bsmgp.org.united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland for a range of stained glass lectures, conferences, tours, portfolios of recent stained glass commissions by members, and data on courses and the conservation of stained glass. Back issues of The Journal of Stained Glass are listed and there is a searchable index for stained drinking glass articles, an invaluable resource for stained glass researchers.

After the First World State of war, stained drinking glass window memorials were a popular selection amongst wealthier families, examples can exist found in churches across the UK.

In the United States, there is a 100-year-old trade organization, The Stained Glass Association of America, whose purpose is to function as a publicly recognized arrangement to assure survival of the arts and crafts by offer guidelines, instruction and preparation to craftspersons. The SGAA also sees its role equally defending and protecting its craft against regulations that might restrict its liberty every bit an architectural fine art form. The current president is Kathy Bernard. Today there are bookish establishments that teach the traditional skills. One of these is Florida Land University's Master Craftsman Program, which recently completed a thirty ft (nine.1 m) high stained-drinking glass windows, designed by Robert Bischoff, the plan's manager, and Jo Ann, his wife and installed to overlook Bobby Bowden Field at Doak Campbell Stadium. The Roots of Knowledge installation at Utah Valley University in Orem, Utah is 200 anxiety (61 thou) long and has been compared to those in several European cathedrals, including the Cologne Cathedral in Germany, Sainte-Chapelle in French republic, and York Minster in England.^[34]

Sparse slices of agate set up into lead and drinking glass, Grossmünster, Zürich, Switzerland, by Sigmar Polke (2009)

Combining ancient and modernistic traditions [edit]

Mid-20th-century window showing a continuation of ancient and 19th-century methods practical to a modern historical bailiwick. Florence Nightingale window at St Peters, Derby, fabricated for the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary
Figurative blueprint using the atomic number 82 lines and minimal glass paint in the 13th-century manner combined with the texture of Cathedral glass, Ins, Switzerland
St Michael and the Devil at the church building of St Michael Paternoster Row, by English artist John Hayward combines traditional methods with a distinctive use of shard-like sections of drinking glass.

Buildings incorporating stained glass windows [edit]

Churches [edit]

Stained glass windows were unremarkably used in churches for decorative and informative purposes. Many windows are donated to churches by members of the congregation as memorials of loved ones. For more information on the use of stained glass to depict religious subjects, run across Poor Man'south Bible.

Of import examples
- Cathedral of Chartres, in France, 11th- to 13th-century glass
- Canterbury Cathedral, in England, 12th to 15th century plus 19th- and 20th-century drinking glass
- York Minster, in England, 11th- to 15th-century drinking glass
- Sainte-Chapelle, in Paris, 13th- and 14th-century glass
- Florence Cathedral, Italy, 15th-century glass designed past Uccello, Donatello and Ghiberti
- St. Andrew'due south Cathedral, Sydney, Australia, early on consummate cycle of 19th-century glass, Hardman of Birmingham.
- Fribourg Cathedral, Switzerland, consummate bike of glass 1896–1936, past Józef Mehoffer
- Coventry Cathedral, England, mid-20th-century glass past various designers, the large baptistry window being by John Piper
- Dark-brown Memorial Presbyterian Church, extensive collection of windows by Louis Condolement Tiffany

Synagogues [edit]

In addition to Christian churches, stained drinking glass windows have been incorporated into Jewish temple compages for centuries. Jewish communities in the United States saw this emergence in the mid-19th century, with such notable examples as the sanctuary depiction of the Ten Commandments in New York'southward Congregation Anshi Chesed. From the mid-20th century to the present, stained drinking glass windows have been a ubiquitous characteristic of American synagogue architecture. Styles and themes for synagogue stained glass artwork are as diverse every bit their church counterparts. Equally with churches, synagogue stained glass windows are often dedicated by member families in commutation for major financial contributions to the establishment.

Places of worship [edit]

Interior of the Blue Mosque, Istanbul.
Stained glass windows in the Mosque of Srinagar, Kashmir
Late 20th-century stained glass from Temple Ohev Sholom, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania by Ascalon Studios.

Mausolea [edit]

Mausolea, whether for general customs use or for private family unit utilize, may use stained glass as a comforting entry for natural low-cal, for memorialization, or for display of religious imagery.

Stained-glass window in the Benedum mausoleum, Homewood Cemetery, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Houses [edit]

Stained glass windows in houses were particularly popular in the Victorian era and many domestic examples survive. In their simplest form they typically depict birds and flowers in pocket-size panels, oftentimes surrounded with auto-fabricated cathedral glass which, despite what the name suggests, is pale-coloured and textured. Some large homes take fantabulous examples of secular pictorial drinking glass. Many small houses of the 19th and early on 20th centuries take leadlight windows.

Prairie style homes
The houses of Frank Lloyd Wright

Sliding pantry door installed in a suburban home.

Public and commercial buildings [edit]

Stained glass has frequently been used every bit a decorative element in public buildings, initially in places of learning, regime or justice merely increasingly in other public and commercial places such as banks, retailers and railway stations. Public houses in some countries brand all-encompassing use of stained glass and leaded lights to create a comfy atmosphere and retain privacy.

Stained drinking glass in the Town Hall, Liberec, Czech Republic

Sculpture [edit]

Fused glass sculpture (2012) by Carlo Roccella^[fr] Glass Sculpture in Paris. French republic

References [edit]

^ "Stained Drinking glass in Medieval Europe". Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. The Metropolitain Museum of Art. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
^ "Facts virtually Glass – Creating Coloured Glass; Pot-metal glass", Boppard Conservation Project – Glasgow Museums
^ Investigations in Medieval Stained Glass: Materials, Methods, and Expressions, xvii, eds., Brigitte Kurmann-Schwarz, Elizabeth Pastan, 2019, BRILL, ISBN 9004395717, 9789004395718, google books
^ "Facts about Glass: Early Drinking glass Painting", Boppard Conservation Project – Glasgow Museums; Historic England, 287-288
^ Barbara Butts, Lee Hendrix and others, Painting on Calorie-free: Drawings and Stained Glass in the Age of Dürer and Holbein, 183, 2001, Getty Publications, ISBN 089236579X, ISBN 9780892365791, google books
^ Steinhoff, Frederick Louis (1973). Ceramic Industry. Industrial Publications, Incorporated.
^ Chambers'southward encyclopaedia. Pergamon Press. 1967.
^ "Facts most Glass: Silvery Stain", Boppard Conservation Projection – Glasgow Museums; Historic England, 290
^ Modern Methods for Analysing Archaeological and Historical Glass, section vii.iii.3.v, 2013, ed. Koen H. A. Janssens, Wiley, ISBN 1118314204, 9781118314203, google books
^ In fact Jean Cousin the Elder was merely born in 1500, at the same time equally the tehnique; claims that he was the first French painter in oils might exist more valid.
^ "Facts well-nigh Drinking glass: Sanguine and Carnation", Boppard Conservation Project – Glasgow Museums; Celebrated England, 288
^ ^a ^b Celebrated England, 290
^ "Examples of Writing in Stained Glass", Boppard Conservation Project – Glasgow Museums
^ ^a ^b Illustrated Glass Lexicon www.glassonline.com. Retrieved three August 2006
^ Chemic Fact Sheet – Chromium Archived 15 August 2017 at the Wayback Auto www.speclab.com. Retrieved 3 Baronial 2006
^ ^a ^b Geary, Theresa Flores (2008). The Illustrated Bead Bible: Terms, Tips & Techniques. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. p. 108. ISBN9781402723537.
^ Substances Used in the Making of Coloured Glass 1st.glassman.com (David G Issitt). Retrieved iii August 2006
^ Uranium Drinking glass www.glassassociation.org.united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland (Barrie Skelcher). Retrieved 3 August 2006
^ "Facts most glass: Assembling a stained-glass console", Boppard Conservation Projection – Glasgow Museums
^ Discovering stained glass – John Harries, Carola Hicks, Edition: three – 1996
^ Ahmad Y Hassan, The Manufacture of Coloured Glass and Cess of Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna, History of Science and Technology in Islam.
^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Stained Drinking glass". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Visitor.
^ "Fairford Church". Sacred-destinations.com. xx October 2007. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
^ ^a ^b Lee, Seddon and Stephens, pp. 118–121
^ ^a ^b Vidimus, Dirck Peterz. Crabeth Archived xxx July 2014 at the Wayback Car Issue twenty (accessed 26 August 2012)
^ ^a ^b ^c Gordon Campbell, The Grove Encyclopedia of Decorative Arts, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-xix-518948-5
^ ^a ^b Peter Cormack, Arts & Crafts Stained Drinking glass, Yale University Printing, 2015
^ "Joining glass mosaics".
^ "Le 1000 dictionnaire Qu&#233bec government'due south online lexicon entry for gemmail (in French)". viii Apr 2003. Archived from the original on 2 April 2003. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
^ Gemmail, Encyclopædia Britannica
^ [1], Gemmail Time
^ ^a ^b Harrod, Tanya, The Crafts in Britain in the 20th Century, Yale University Press (4 Feb 1999), ISBN 978-0300077803, p. 452
^ "Stained drinking glass: 20th century". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
^ O'Hear, Natasha (8 December 2016). "History illuminated: The evolution of knowledge told through 60,000 pieces of glass". CNN.com. Archived from the original on 20 April 2017. Retrieved 19 April 2017.

"Historic England" = Practical Building Conservation: Glass and glazing, by Historic England, 2011, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., ISBN 0754645576, 9780754645573, google books

Farther reading [edit]

Martin Harrison, 'Victorian Stained Drinking glass', Barrie & Jenkins, 1980 ISBN 0214206890
The Periodical of Stained Drinking glass, Burne-Jones Special Issue, Vol. XXXV, 2011 ISBN 978 0 9568762 1 8
The Journal of Stained Glass, Scotland Issue, Vol. Xxx, 2006 ISBN 978 0 9540457 half dozen 0
The Periodical of Stained Glass, Special Effect, The Stained Glass Collection of Sir John Soane'due south Museum, Vol. XXVII, 2003 ISBN 0 9540457 3 iv
The Journal of Stained Glass, America Issue, Vol. XXVIII, 2004 ISBN 0 9540457 4 2
Peter Cormack, 'Arts & Crafts Stained Drinking glass', Yale Academy Press, 2015 ISBN 978-0-300-20970-9
Caroline Swash, 'The 100 Best Stained Glass Sites in London', Malvern Arts Printing, 2015 ISBN 978-0-9541055-ii-5
Nicola Gordon Bowe, 'Wilhelmina Geddes, Life and Piece of work', Four Courts Press, 2015 ISBN 978-one-84682-532-iii
Lucy Costigan & Michael Cullen (2010). Strangest Genius: The Stained Glass of Harry Clarke, The History Printing, Dublin, ISBN 978-1-84588-971-five
Theophilus (ca 1100). On Divers Arts, trans. from Latin past John Thousand. Hawthorne and Cyril Stanley Smith, Dover, ISBN 0-486-23784-two
Elizabeth Morris (1993). Stained and Decorative Glass, Tiger Books, ISBN 0-86824-324-eight
Sarah Dark-brown (1994). Stained Drinking glass- an Illustrated History, Bracken Books, ISBN 1-85891-157-five
Painton Cowen (1985). A Guide to Stained Glass in Britain, Michael Joseph, ISBN 0-7181-2567-3
Hubby, TB, The Luminous Image: Painted Drinking glass Roundels in the Lowlands, 1480-1560, 2000, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Lawrence Lee, George Seddon, Francis Stephens (1976).Stained Glass, Mitchell Beazley, ISBN 0-600-56281-6
Simon Jenkins (2000). England's Yard All-time Churches, Penguin, ISBN 0-7139-9281-half-dozen
Robert Eberhard. Database: Church Stained Glass Windows.
Cliff and Monica Robinson. Database: Buckinghamshire Stained Glass.
Stained Glass Association of America. History of Stained Glass.
Robert Kehlmann (1992). 20th Century Stained Glass: A New Definition, Kyoto Shoin Co., Ltd., Kyoto, ISBN iv-7636-2075-four
Kisky, Hans (1959). 100 Jahre Rheinische Glasmalerei, Neuss : Verl. Gesellschaft für Buchdruckerei, OCLC 632380232
Robert Sowers (1954). The Lost Art, George Wittenborn Inc., New York, OCLC 1269795
Robert Sowers (1965). Stained Drinking glass: An Architectural Fine art, Universe Books, Inc., New York, OCLC 21650951
Robert Sowers (1981). The Language of Stained Glass, Timber Press, Woods Grove, Oregon, ISBN 0-917304-61-six
Hayward, Jane (2003). English language and French medieval stained glass in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN1872501370.
Virginia Chieffo Raguin (2013). Stained Glass: Radiant Art . Los Angeles: Getty Publications. ISBN978-1606061534.
Conrad Rudolph, "Inventing the Exegetical Stained-Glass Window: Suger, Hugh, and a New Aristocracy Art," Fine art Message 93 (2011) 399–422
Conrad Rudolph, "The Parabolic Soapbox Window and the Canterbury Gyre: Social Modify and the Exclamation of Aristocracy Status at Canterbury Cathedral," Oxford Fine art Journal 38 (2015) 1–19

External links [edit]

BSMGP | The domicile of British Stained Glass
SGAA Sourcebook Observe a Studio - The Stained Glass Association of America
Preservation of Stained Glass
Church Stained Glass Window Database recorded past Robert Eberhard, covering ≈2800 churches in the southeast of England
Institute for Stained Drinking glass in Canada, over 10,000 photos; a multi-year photographic survey of Canada'south stained drinking glass from many countries; 1856 to nowadays
The Stained Drinking glass Museum (Ely, England)
Vitromusée Romont (Romont (FR), Switzerland)
Stained glass workshops (Uk)
Stained glass guide (UK)
"Stained Glass". Drinking glass. Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 23 December 2012. Retrieved xvi June 2007.
Gloine – Stained glass in the Church of Ireland Research carried out by Dr David Lawrence on behalf of the Representative Church Trunk of the Church building of Republic of ireland, partially funded by the Heritage Quango
Stained-glass windows by Sergio de Castro in French republic, Deutschland and Switzerland

banksfroverce.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stained_glass